Abstracts of Research Projects
A. Research conducted in mainly herbaceous vegetation areas in Eastern Galilee and Golan Heights
1. Plants Responses to Defoliation: The Key to Increasing Production Efficiency in Grazed Systems
2. Influence of high intensity grazing pressure on cattle and vegetation.
3. Phenology of Quercus Ithaburensis with Emphasis on the Effect of Fire.B. Research conducted in woodlans areas in Western Galilee
4. Nutritive Quality of Principal Components of Herbaceous and Scrubby Forage
5. Multi purpose use of Mediterranean scrub oak forest
6. Phosphate Nutrition And Primary Production Of Range Land On Brown Rendzina Soils In The Galilee, Israel
7. The Effect Of Phosphorus Nutrition, Shrub Control And Fire On The Dynamics Of Mediterranean Batha Vegetation In Galilee, Israel
8. Multi-Species Grazing In The Natural Shrublands On The GalileeC. Wetlands Management and Nature Protection
9. Carrying Capacity Of Dried Hula Swamp In Israel For Bubalus Bubalis (Water Buffalo) Grazing.
10. Development of Macrophytic Vegetation in the Agmon Wetlands of Israel by Spontaneous Colonization and Reintroduction
11. Control of wolves predation in beef cattle herds
1. Plants Responses To Defoliation: The Key To Increasing Production Efficiency In Grazed Systems
Kothman,M.M5., M.Gutman1, D.D. Briske5, I.Noy-Meir4, and T. Bouton5
Native or domestic forage is the most cost effective feed source for ruminants production. Management of forage production and utilization on ranges and pastures to achieve sustained productivity and profitability requires sound management decisions. These decisions must be supported by knowledge of forage plant biology and system function.
A static optimum management solution does not exist because both environmental and economic components of the system are highly variable through time. Consequently, management prescriptions must be sufficiently flexible to accommodate a variety of inputs on various time scales.
For nine consecutive years (1987-1995) an American - Israeli team developed a system to measure the impact of plant manipulation on herbage production. The trials were conducted under controlled grazing conditions with animals (cattle or sheep) or by simulation of grazing by clipping plants raised in containers. We propose to apply this acquired knowledge on rangelands grasses species in order to determine the pertinent data needed to improve management in these rangelands.
Abstract of results
Containerized plants of Perennial wild barley (Hordeum bulbosum) grown from corms and of Wild emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccoides ) grown from seeds, were grown in environmental conditions comparable to those encountered under field conditions. Both species were subjected to 3 defoliation frequencies ( once, twice and three times during the season) each at 3 different clipping heights ( 1, 2.5 and 5 cm above ground level ) plus a control treatment (10 treatments in all).
Wild emmer wheat control plants had significantly higher cumulative total and reproductive biomass over all harvests than all clipped plants. Clipping height and frequency had no significant effect on cumulative vegetative biomass. Increased clipping frequency strongly reduced reproductive biomass and plants clipped at a height of 5 cm had a significantly larger reproductive biomass than plants clipped at 1 cm. In Wild perennial barley plants both the cumulative total and the reproductive biomass decreased significantly at low clipping height, and decreased with clipping frequency. Values of both parameters were lower in all clipped plants than in control plants. The cumulative vegetative biomass was not markedly affected either by clipping height or by frequency of clipping, only the most severely clipped plants having values lower than control plants.Results from these experiments will be used to parameterize biomass partitioning between reproductive and vegetative growth sub- models to be incorporated into an existing forage growth model for economically important annual and perennial grasses.
2. Influence of high intensity grazing pressure on cattle and vegetation.
Gutman, M1., A. Perevolotsky1, A. Brosh2, Y. Aharoni2 and E.D. Ungar1.
In most of the densely populated countries the amount of rangeland land is decreasing due to land allocated to other uses. As generally the profitability of a beef cattle enterprise is directly related to the herd size one possible alternative is increasing the grazing pressure.
In natural Mediterranean pasture the herbage quality is very high in the green season and is the main production base for beef cattle and sheep that graze on it.
However, for more than half the year the pasture is dry. In this season, quality is low, and in many cases unable to supply the subsistence needs to the herd feeding on it. The dry season is therefore problematic for herd management, and in most cases, supplementary feeding is required. Supplementary feeding represents a major cost that effects the profitability of the herd.
If the livestock has to graze during the dry season the socking densities have to be relatively light. The reason that at the end of the growth season there well be enough forage to support the herd trough the dry season.
The grazing option to be investigated in the current trial is to utilize most of the herbage production during the green season and to artificial feed the cattle during the dry season.
The aim of the trial is to investigate
A. Cattle and vegetation responses to very high grazing intensity during the growth season.
B. The influence that grazing management in the green season has on the pasture quality in the dry season.Experimental layout
Eight paddocks, in two blocks of 4 each, were available for the experiment. The paddocks were 21.5 to 33.0 ha in size and fenced so as to include equivalent proportions of the different range habitats in each paddock. Six of these paddocks have been under controlled grazing treatment form year 1960 herd (Gutman et al., 1979; 1990) and the remaining two from 1986.Four grazing treatments were selected: Deferred Heavy (D 0.8), Deferred Moderate (D1.8), Continuous Moderate (C1.8), and Continuous Heavy (C 0.8). These were replicated twice, once for each block. After the first germinating rains of each year (at about the end of November) the cows in all the treatments are removed from the main pasture. The herds are be artificially feeded and returned to the trial after the green biomass had reached about 80 g/m2 dry matter (at about the beginning of January).
Treatments
Code Treatment Stocking rate (ha / head) (C 0.8) Continuous Heavy 0.8 (C1.8) Continuous Moderate 1.8 (D 0.8) Deferred Heavy 0.8 (D1.8) Deferred Moderate 1.8 Grazing treatments
The division of the grazing plots in the deferred grazing treatments into two equal sub-plots, one for the beginning of the green season grazing (D 0.8) or for all the green season (D 1.8) and the other for late green - beginning dry (D 0.8) or all dry season (D 1.8). In the first sub plots will be high pressure grazing, but for a relatively short period. In the second sub-plots, non-green or late green pasture grazing, the herbage will grow without interference and will enter the dry season with a large and well developed biomass. The plots will be separated by an electric fence. Grazing will be conducted in the same season every year on each sub-plot and it can be assumed that clear differences will develop between the sub- plots in the make-up of species, primary performances, structure and quality of the dry pasture..
Supplementation
From July onwards, cows were supplemented at lib with poultry litter fed from large troughs to which all the animals had free access. Straw was supplied at lib whenever the amount of residual dry litter in the pasture became sparse (generally < 60 gram dry matter/m2).
3. Phenology of Quercus Ithaburensis With Emphasis on the Effect Of Fire.
Observations on the phenology of Quercus ithaburensis were carried out during three consecutive years in Yahudia Nature Reserve, Israel.
Bud break occurred mostly in February with minor bud breaks in March-April, May and in autumn. Q. ithaburensis trees shed leaves in October through January with a peak in December - January, but even during these months at least 10% of the trees remained evergreen. Branch growth took place during February-April. Shedding of one year old branches was recorded in half of the observations, accompanied by the formation of abscission tissue. Acorns generally began to ripen in November and shedding extended from December until January. The percentage of acorns attaining full ripeness varied considerably from branch to branch and from year to year, reaching approx. 20% of the number of acorns found in May. Ripe acorns appeared exclusively on two-year old branches.
The degree of fire damage to trees greatly depended on the intensity of the fire, which in turn depended on weather conditions, quantity of dry pasture vegetation, and the location of the tree relative to cairns. Most trees were located within cairns, which constituted insulation belts, as no herbaceous vegetation grows on them. The effect of grazing intensity was decisive to the extent that fire damaged trees. Reduction of the bulk of dry pasture vegetation, affected the number of trees harmed, both as to their revival and their re-sprouting potential. Heavy grazing reduced to nearly half the number of trees suffering damage. After an early summer fire, sprouting was registered, but not after a late summer fire.
4. Nutritive Quality of Principal Components 0f Herbaceous And Scrubby Forage
Rothman, S., 2 M. Gutman 1 and N.G. Seligman1.
The purpose of this research is to compare the nutritional value of the vegetative components during the year.
Samples are collected during the main phonologically vegetation stages: seedling, vegetative growth, flowering, fruiting, dry. The degree of grazing is also recorded.
Laboratory analyses are carried out on: in vitro digestible dry matter (IVDM), determined according to the method of Tilley and Terry; crude protein (CP); neutral detergent fiber (NDF); acid detergent fiber (ADF) and ash.
5. Multi purpose use of Mediterranean scrub oak forest
Henkin Z 3. , M. Gutman1 , Z. Holzer2
Dense scrub forest (garrigue, macchia, chaparral) covers extensive areas of uncultivable uplands in most countries with Mediterranean and similar climates. As the wood has no value as timber, the only economic use is to provide fuel and goat grazing. These activities provide low return to labor and are often restricted close to the villages. Therefore large areas are not utilized and represent a fire hazard .
An economically and socially more attractive utilization could be beef cattle grazing. The climate and the potential productivity of the land are suitable. But in its present state the vegetation provides little herbaceous forage which is required by cattle.
The suggested solution is conversion of dense tall scrub into an open woodland with a productive herbaceous layer, by thinning and pruning of trunks; and its maintenance in this stage by heavy cattle grazing to check basal regrowth.
An experiment to test the feasibility of this conversion has been set up at the "Hatal" Range Station of The Agricultural Research Organization of Israel in Western Galilee. The trial began in 1981. The preliminary conclusions of the research are as follows:
1. The forest can be opened by manual cutting from a density of 2000 -3000 trunks per ha. to 500-700 trunks per ha. The trunks removed are utilized for fuel or charcoal, which paid for the labor cost of thinning. The clearing permits access of the cattle to most of the area.
2. Under heavy stocking pressure (1.8-2.2 ha per cow) the forest has been kept open. The cattle utilize the young regrowth from the stumps, the leaves and limbs up a diameter of about 8 mm and to a height of 2.0 meters.
3. Before the clearing there was no herbaceous vegetation between the trees. During the trial a slow but steady spreading of herbaceous plants was observed in spite of the heavy cattle grazing.
4. The trees and the herbaceous vegetation alone could not provide for a nutritional level adequate for cattle performance acceptable to commercial ranching. The herd was supplemented with agricultural waste and byproducts which provided for 40% to 50% of the cattle requirements.
It was found that raising cattle was possible even though performance was moderate and supplementation was above the levels common on grassland range.
Adaptations that recorded reasonably well included: spring mating; stocking rate of 15 dunam per cow during 8 months of the year; small cows with an average weight of 350-380 kg; early weaning; addition of creep- feeding to calves.
6. Phosphate Nutrition And Primary Production Of Range Land On Brown Rendzina Soils In The Galilee, Israel
Henkin Z 3. , I. Noy-Meir4, U. Kafkafi4, M. Gutman1, and N. Seligman1
Primary production on terra rossa and brown rendzina soils on the hills of the Galilee in Israel is severely restricted by nutrient, mainly phosphorus, deficiency. The purpose of this study was to investigate the residual effects of a single application of P fertilizer and the long-term role of P in the production and botanical composition of herbaceous vegetation. A fertilizer trial on brown rendzina soil (Lithic Haploxeroll) with P and N treatments was established and monitored for six years. Phosphate fertilization consisted of a single surface application of 45 or 90 kg P ha-1 as enriched superphosphate (25% P2O5). In the first year, yield of herbaceous vegetation in P fertilized plots increased four fold compared to the control, and about two fold during the following five years. In the sixth year, production in the fertilized plots diminished, but was still significantly higher than in the control plots. In addition, there was a large increase in the legume cover that improved the nutritional quality of the range vegetation. Concentration of P and N in the plants as well as total P and N uptake, increased significantly. Available P concentration in the soil increased 2 to 5 fold in the year after fertilizer application and a strong residual effect persisted for up to 5 years. A single application of P (45-90 kg ha-1) on brown rendzina soil in the Galilee raised the total 5-year primary production from 780 g m-2 dry matter in the control plots to 1840 - 2100 g m-2 dry matter in the fertilized plots. Forage quality was also improved for an extended period of over five years. Phosphate nutrition was shown to be the key to raising productivity of these soils.
7. The Effect 0f Phosphorus Nutrition, Shrub Control And Fire on The Dynamics 0f Mediterranean Batha Vegetation In Galilee, Israel
Henkin Z 3. N. Seligman1, I. Noy-Meir4, U. Kafkafi4, and M. Gutman1.
The low rate of available soil phosphorus is the main limiting factor for herbaceous plant growth on terra rossa and brown rendzina soils of the hilly Galilee, Israel. These areas are dominated by Mediterranean sclerophyllous scrub forest, or by "batha", a shrubland of spiny shrubs and dwarf shrubs (mainly Sarcopoterium spinosum [L.] Spach). Transition of "batha" open woodland to (rich) herbaceous vegetation would improve pasture value, reduce fire hazard and increase the suitability of these areas for tourism and recreation. The influence of phosphorus application and shrub control by spraying herbicide on the relationship between herbaceous vegetation and shrubs was studied. Vegetation was eliminated by fire. The effects of spraying herbicides and application of P were evaluated. The herbicide eliminated almost all the bushes, and their regeneration was slow. A single P application increased the herbaceous yield initially by 100%-400%. The effect decreased in subsequent years but was still detectable in the sixth year. Application of P, in addition to herbicide, led to even slower regeneration of the bush component. As a result, the herbaceous vegetation competed more effectively with shrub seedlings, and a new dynamic balance between the two components was maintained. Application of phosphorus may be useful for converting low bush formations in open woodlands to rich grasslands.
8. Multi-Species Grazing In The Natural Shrublands On The Galilee
Henkin Z. 3, M. Gutman1, Z. Holzer and J . Landau1.
In the last 10 years cattle grazing on natural pasture land has significantly increased. In a large number of the natural shrub land pasture areas, cattle grazing pressure is large and increasing the size of the herd is difficult without an increase in supplementary feeding. These natural shrub lands can be utilized more efficently by combining the cattle with other animal species that can feed on the pastureland components not eaten by the cattle.
In this project, we examine the contribution of the major woody plants as cattle food, and the combining of the grazing regimes of black goats with cattle on the same plot in order to increase the plot yield. Combining the grazing regimes of black goats and cattle, with the right management, should:
a) Improve the utilization of these areas and as a result, increase their production capacity.
b) Clear the herbaceous biomass as well as help clear the woody bushes resulting in the reduction of inflammable material and significantly reduce the fire risk.
The advantages of black goats over cattle in the natural shrublands is their ability to utilize woody plants not eaten by cattle. This advantage is seen especially in natural shrub land where thorned woody plants such as Calicotome villosa and Sarcopeterium spinosum predominate and in which herbaceous yield is low. Black goats feed on these woody plants and as such prevent them from closing up.
Research objectives
1) To examine the possibilities for maximum utilization of the pastures in natural shrublands by combining the grazing of cattle and goats.
2) To examine the influence combined grazing of cattle and goats has on the woody plant cover.
Expected benefits
1) Combining the grazing regimes of cattle and black goats should contribute to the maximum utilization of pastureland by increasing the number of animals per area, likewise, the combined usage of the different facilities should reduce the relative costs of area developement.
2) The consumption of C. villosa and S. spinosum by goats should lead to their suppression and remove a cause of the closing of large parts of cattle grazing areas in the hilly areas of the Galilee.
3) Combining the grazing of goats in cattle grazing areas should contribute to the addition of kid meat and goat milk. The addition of meat and milk as a secondary product will add to the reduction of costs for fencing and track development.
9. Carrying Capacity Of Dried Hula Swamp In Israel For Bubalus Bubalis (Water Buffalo) Grazing.
Gutman1, M., Didi Kaplan5 and Talia Oron5
The Hula swamp was drained in 1950’s to reclaim a large, fertile area for cultivation. However the project was found to be only partially successful. Oxidation of the organic peat soil resulted in soil sinkage, while heavy autumn winds have eroded the dry peat, in some cases up to 1 cm of soil in one storm. In addition, there have been occasional occurrences of underground fires. Moreover, due to a nitrate surplus, the fields tended to produce vegetative growth rather than reproductive, which restricted farmers mainly to hay production.
The water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) was domesticated in India and brought to the Middle East in the Seventh Century C.E .With the draining of the Hula swamps (north of Israel) in the late 1950’s they disappeared from the Hula Valley. In 1968 a herd of 87 were reintroduced to the Hula Nature Reserve, established after the drainage in a small part of the valley. Today the herd numbers about 110 adults. The buffalo were maintained at high stocking rate so as to control the growth of woody vegetation, particularly Tamarix jordanis, and to ensure the opening of thickets and the establishment of meadows.
Predictions that the sinking will continue and that more areas will go out of production led the authorities in 1994 to re-flood a part of the valley. The aim was to rehabilitate the diverse wetland ecology, to create an area grazed by wild animals and to attract ecotourism .
The purpose of the trial was to determine the carrying capacity of desiccated swamp lands in the Hula valley for buffalo grazing.
A grazing trial was conducted for two years at a very heavy stocking rate (4.6 head per ha)for a non-irrigated natural pasture. Only during the late autumn and winter the growth rate of the vegetation decreased to the extent that it was necessary to supplement the livestock with hay. According to trials conducted in the region, the estimated growth rate of the pastures is about a 3% daily growth rate, in relation to the standing crop (Kothman et al, 1995). According to the National Research Council (1984) 2.5% dry matter of the animal liveweight is considered as the potential daily intake.
Accordingly to calculation with the above figures, the pasture growth rate was above the consumption rate during most of the year, and only at the end of November was the animals consumption rate above the vegetative growth rate, and the biomass standing crop fell below the threshold that fulfilled the animals’ requirements.
Results from both paddocks indicate that heavy continuous grazing on the drier areas of the drained Hula Swamp, at a stocking rate of 0.2 to 0.33 ha per buffalo, induced an open, vigorous pasture swards.
11. Development of Macrophytic Vegetation in the Agmon Wetlands of Israel by Spontaneous Colonization and Reintroduction.
Kaplan, Didi 5, Talia Oron 5 and Mario Gutman 1.
The drainage of the Hula lake and swamps, north Israel, during the late 1950’s resulted in the loss of a very diverse and rare ecosystem. Oxidation of the organic peat soil resulted in soil sinkage, while heavy autumn winds have eroded the dry peat. Moreover, the fields tended to produce vegetative growth rather than reproductive, due to nitrate surplus, restricting farmers mainly to hay production. Predictions that the sinking will continue and that more areas will go out of production led the authorities in 1994 to re-flood the valley. The aim of the present study is to monitor the spontaneous establishment of vegetation and to study the process of plant establishment and the dynamics of reintroduction in the re-flooded area, the Agmon wetlands.
In the program for the reintroduction of plants being conducted in the Agmon wetlands, attention was given to submerged and emerged plants, as well as to riparian species. Special attention was given to ornamental flowers and to plants with potential sustainable green shore cover. Cyperus papyrus and Cynodon dactylon were found to be plants with sustainable potential for lake shore stabilization. Cyperus papyrus was established rapidly from seedlings and was reintroduced immediately as the dominant riparian species, while Cynodon dactylon established itself spontaneously. Reintroduced Nymphaea alba clones were established only in protected enclosures, to protect them from the grazing of Myocastor coypu. Nuphar lutea and Iris pseudacorus showed resistance to grazing and are in the first stages of reintroduction to the new lake.
11. Control of wolves predation in beef cattle herds.
Gutman, M. 1, E. Gefen7 and P. Gilady 6.
From the year 1994 the wolf (Canis lupus) population in Northern Israel has increased from a few observed individuals to a an estimated population of 60 to 80. The number of denounced wolf attacks increased from practically unrecorded to about 100 denounced cased in 1996.
The most important damage is caused to beef cattle herds grazing un- attended in fenced natural pastures.
The wolf species is protected in Israel by law since 1954. In order to protect the herds from wolves attack, without eliminating the wolf population, there is a need for research in two directions:
a. Study the characteristics of the Northern Israel wolf population as follows: number of packs, their size, age and sex composition , territory size and food composition by radio telemetry surveillance of about 5-10 wolves.
This observance will enable to examine the amount of damage the wolves cause to livestock and the efficiency of the different methods used to protect the cattle from them.
b. Protecting of livestock from wolf attacks
To protect the free ranging beef cattle herds the following methods are been studied:
1. Guarding dogs. Some of the cattle herds are protected by dogs (Marman and Great Pirinean) which successfully prevented some of the wolf attacks.
2. Fencing. Part of the grazing areas, especially paddocks for calving cows, are fenced in with electric fences which prevent wolves from penetrating.
3. Tracking dogs. The propose is to form a tracking dog pack to find and neutralize vicious wolves that was impossible to prevent their attacks by other methods.
In 1996 Mr. P. Gilady, ranger of the Nature Reserve Authority, spend a training period at Minnesota, USA with Dr. David Meach and Dr. Mike Nealson in wolf trapping and radio telemetry.
